From: Subject: Critical Issue: Integrating Standards into the Curriculum Date: Tue, 24 Jun 2008 12:58:31 -0500 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C8D5FA.00C219C0" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.3198 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C8D5FA.00C219C0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="utf-8" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/currclum/cu300.htm =EF=BB=BF Critical Issue: Integrating Standards into the = Curriculum


3D"Visit

3D"" Critical Issue:
Integrating Standards into = the=20 Curriculum



3D"Pathways

3D""=20 ISSUE: Many educators and advisory groups = emphasize=20 high=20 standards as an important factor in improving the quality of = education for=20 all students. As a result, schools and districts are looking at ways to = develop=20 a high-quality curriculum that is based on standards. An important = starting=20 point for this effort is a carefully thought-out curriculum=20 framework that reflects the standards and goals for which the = education=20 community is willing to be held accountable. Developing a = standards-based=20 curriculum requires changes in the way teachers teach and schools are = run, so=20 care must be taken to build capacity for all educators and to provide = adequate=20 time for implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of the curriculum. = The=20 curriculum-development process also should provide opportunities for = reflection=20 and revision so that the curriculum is updated and improved on a regular = basis.=20

Overview=20 | Goals=20 | Action=20 Options | Pitfalls=20 | Different=20 Viewpoints | Cases=20 | Contacts=20 | References=20

3D""=20=20 OVERVIEW: According to Marzano and Kendall (1996), many = educators consider the publication of A Nation at Risk = (National=20 Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983) as the "initiating event of = the=20 modern standards movement." With the passage of the Goals 2000: = Educate=20 America Act in 1994, U.S. lawmakers acknowledged the importance of = high=20 standards in improving education. Since that time, the call for higher = standards=20 has come from all areas: administrators, teachers, teachers unions, = state-level=20 and national-level educational organizations, business and community = leaders,=20 parents, and students.=20

The push for standards has guided change efforts at all levels of = education=20 and has brought about positive results. "The standards-based movement in = America=20 is on solid footing and is slowly but surely changing the way we think = of=20 teaching and learning in America's classrooms," notes the American = Federation of=20 Teachers (1999). "Nearly three-fourths of the teachers who have worked = with=20 standards for at least six years say the standards have had a positive = impact on=20 their schools." (p. 12). Ravitch (1995) adds, "Standards can improve = achievement=20 by clearly defining what is to be taught and what kind of performance is = expected" (p. 25). Many efforts to improve education begin with the = process of=20 integrating standards into the curriculum.=20

Integrating standards into the curriculum is a complex endeavor that = brings=20 added dimensions to the curriculum-development process. Traditionally, = the=20 school curriculum provides a plan of instruction that indicates = structured=20 learning experiences and outcomes for students. It specifies the details = of=20 student learning, instructional strategies, the teachers' roles, and the = context=20 in which teaching and learning take place. More recently, however, the = standards=20 movement, research on teaching and learning, and research on the characteristics=20 of successful schools have broadened the scope of curriculum to = include=20 everything that affects what happens in the classroom and consequently = affects=20 student learning. The process of integrating standards into the = curriculum=20 emphasizes learning and growth for all as the natural and desired = outcome of=20 reform in the schools. From that perspective, a standards-based = curriculum=20 includes not only goals, objectives, and standards, but everything that = is done=20 to enable attainment of those outcomes and, at the same time, foster = reflection=20 and revision of the curriculum to ensure students' continued growth. = Curriculum=20 development is most successful when educators collaborate with parents,=20 community members, and students. In fact, all stakeholders need to share = their=20 expertise in creating a curriculum based on high standards for student = learning.=20

"The idea behind standards-based reform is to set clear standards for = what we=20 want students to learn and to use those academic standards to drive = other=20 changes in the system," notes the American Federation of Teachers = (1999). In=20 effect, development of a standards-based curriculum must be considered = in the=20 context of school reform, which includes not only curriculum, = instruction, and=20 assessment but also professional development, parent and community = involvement,=20 instructional leadership, and the use of technology and other resources. = What=20 goals or standards will the curriculum address? How will students = demonstrate an=20 understanding of these concepts or goals? How will technology be = integrated into=20 the curriculum to aid instruction? How will teachers be prepared and = supported=20 as they implement changes? These questions will be addressed as the = curriculum=20 is developed.=20

The process of integrating standards into the curriculum consists of = four=20 steps: developing a curriculum framework in the context of = standards-based=20 reform; selecting a curriculum-planning model that further articulates = the=20 standards-based reform outlined in the framework; building capacity at = all=20 levels of the educational system; and monitoring, reflecting upon, and=20 evaluating the curriculum as teachers implement it in the classroom.=20

Developing a Curriculum Framework=20

The first step of integrating standards into the curriculum is = developing a=20 curriculum framework. Curriculum frameworks can be developed at the = national,=20 state, or district level. National frameworks include those written by = national=20 organizations (such as the Principles and=20 Standards for School Mathematics developed by the National Council = of=20 Teachers of Mathematics, and the National = Science=20 Education Standards developed by the National Research Council). = National=20 frameworks come in a wide variety of formats and usually represent a = specific=20 content area.=20

State frameworks include those written by state departments of = education=20 (such as the Michigan=20 Curriculum Framework developed by the Michigan Department of = Education).=20 State curriculum frameworks tend to be highly complex due to the = multiple=20 purposes, the variety of audiences, and the diversity of situations that = must be=20 addressed (Blank & Pechman, 1995). A comprehensive listing of = national and=20 state curriculum frameworks can be found in Developing = Educational=20 Standards.=20

District frameworks are those developed by local or regional school=20 districts. Ideally at the local level, a curriculum=20 committee is established to develop the standards-based curriculum = and to=20 address the broader concerns that will be reflected in the curriculum = framework.=20 This committee is made up of administrators, school board members, = teachers and=20 school staff, parents, students (when appropriate), and community = members, but=20 the majority should be school personnel. The goal of this committee is = to=20 develop a standards-based curriculum that will increase student learning = and=20 promote higher student achievement.=20

Wisconsin Rapids = School District,=20 Wisconsin Rapids, WI=20

The complexity of curriculum = development=20 with a focus not only on classroom material to be covered but also = on=20 standards, capacity building, and assessment can seem to be an=20 overwhelming task. To show how one school district navigated = through this=20 process and to delineate the steps they took, the Wisconsin Rapids = School=20 District, Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin, is featured throughout this = critical issue. Donna Weber, principal of Grove Elementary School, = and=20 Martha Kronholm, 5th and 6th grade multiage teacher at Grove = Elementary=20 School, were members of the curriculum-development team for the = Wisconsin=20 Rapids School District. They share what they learned in their = efforts to=20 integrate standards into the curriculum.=20

In Wisconsin Rapids, a group of educators met to look at the = current=20 science curriculum and develop a curriculum that would eventually=20 integrate the science standards. Donna Weber discusses the initial = makeup=20 of the curriculum committee.

[774 K audio file]=20

"Our science planning committee has been led by a = group=20 of district leaders: the director of curriculum and instruction, = staff=20 development personnel, key administrators, and the K-12 science=20 coordinator. Science committee members consist of two groups: = interested=20 staff members who have volunteered their services, and teachers = who are=20 asked to serve on the committee due to their leadership = abilities and=20 expertise in the subject area of science. In addition, careful = attention=20 is given to make sure that all grade levels are represented on = the=20 committee." =

The first task of the curriculum committee is to analyze the national = standards and state standards that already are available and develop a = common=20 understanding of what components to include in the local curriculum = framework.=20 This framework can be as complicated or as simple as needed to guide the = curriculum-development process. The breadth and scope of a framework = document=20 often depend on the size and diversity of the audience to be served by = the=20 framework.=20

After examining the national and state standards, the curriculum = committee is=20 responsible for adopting, adapting, or creating the standards to be = emphasized=20 in the curriculum framework. The committee needs to look at standards in = a much=20 broader context than simply guiding the content aspects of curriculum=20 development. Because the process of integrating standards into the = curriculum=20 dictates changes in the way the school operates and teachers teach, the=20 curriculum committee can determine specific components=20 of curriculum frameworks to include in the local framework. These = components=20 may include an overview, content standards or expectations, performance=20 expectations, use of technology, and professional development or = instructional=20 activities. As they determine the curriculum framework, committee = participants=20 must be willing to listen to and talk with other committee members, not = just=20 convince others about their own personal agendas.=20

Educators in the Wisconsin Rapids School District = have spent=20 years working to develop their science curriculum framework. In = the=20 process, they have faced several challenges common to schools that = are=20 trying to improve. Team members relate that part of their story.=20

[978 K audio file]=20

"The meeting of these key individuals [curriculum=20 planning committee] began approximately six years ago. The = initial=20 process began with study groups. The study groups read research=20 including Project 2061: Benchmarks for Science Literacy, Science = for All=20 Americans, and other National Science Teachers Association = (NSTA)=20 publications. The first time that the district employed a = process of=20 mapping out a K-12 science framework, with the help of North = Central=20 Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL), was approximately three = years=20 ago. The process has been a continual and evolving one ever = since. We=20 feel the work we have done, and are continuing to do, is a = dynamic=20 process. Our curriculum is a living, breathing document! The = development=20 of our curriculum framework began with hours and hours of = frustrating=20 and hard work from our secondary science teachers. It was soon = evident=20 that smooth progress would be hampered by a variety of issues = and=20 concerns. These included differences in opinion and philosophies = between=20 junior high and high school teachers, mediation of heated work = sessions,=20 trying to reach a consensus for grade-level groupings within our = science=20 curriculum, and resolving perennial issues of turfdom. Changes = in=20 leadership--at the science coordinator and director of = curriculum and=20 instruction levels--also contributed to the need of regrouping = and=20 refocusing. No one ever said that curriculum work was going to = be=20 easy."

Curriculum components should be selected on the basis of purpose and=20 audience. A framework serving many purposes and a wide audience will be=20 extensive and include many components. At the very least, framework = development=20 should investigate and delineate standards in the context of reform. = These=20 standards most certainly should include content standards, benchmarks, = and=20 performance standards. In addition, many groups choose to include = curriculum=20 guidelines for teacher knowledge and understanding that are aligned with = the=20 content standards.=20

Content Standards. Content standards are "broadly = stated=20 expectations of what students should know and be able to do in = particular=20 subjects and grade levels," notes the National Center for Research on=20 Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (1999). The center adds, "An = example=20 of a language arts standard is: Fourth-grade students will be able = to gather=20 information for a report using sources such as interviews, = questionnaires,=20 computers, and library centers."=20

Marzano and Kendall (1996) have identified three=20 categories of content standards: procedural, declarative, and = contextual.=20 Using these categories clearly demonstrates that those standards often = labeled=20 as process standards in many of the disciplines are in fact a legitimate = portion=20 of the content in a specific discipline and help define those content = standards=20 that are contextual in nature.=20

Benchmarks. As a rule, content standards that are = described=20 in general terms require more specific statements at each developmental = level to=20 facilitate integration into the curriculum. These statements that = provide a more=20 specific and a developmental look at each of the standards are often = referred to=20 as benchmarks. A benchmark is a "detailed description of a specific = level of=20 student performance expected of students at particular ages, grades, or=20 developmental levels," notes the National Center for Research on = Evaluation,=20 Standards, and Student Testing (1999). "Benchmarks," add Marzano and = Kendall=20 (1996, p. 15), "describe the specific developmental components of the = general=20 domain identified by a standard."=20

Wisconsin Rapids committee members reviewed a = number of=20 standards documents and gave a great deal of thought to what they = wanted=20 to include in their district content standards and benchmarks.=20

[779 K audio file]=20

"These [content standards] were developed after = looking=20 at a variety of publications, research articles, NSTA = literature, state=20 and national standards, and curriculum documents from other = districts.=20 Getting input from a variety of sources has helped us = conceptualize an=20 eclectic document of our very own. The benchmarks that we are in = the=20 process of creating add more specificity to the content = standards and=20 are written with the developmental levels of students in mind. = Our=20 benchmarks, now in first draft format, are written in = grade-level=20 groupings at the K-6 level. This is consistent with the = Wisconsin state=20 science standards and matches the developmental nature of = science, which=20 we strongly believe in. Creating our district's benchmarks has = involved=20 cross-referencing our state standards to our district = curriculum's=20 content standards. Key questions in benchmark development are=20 continually being addressed, for example: What are the critical = skills=20 and knowledge that we want students to be able to know and to = do? What=20 is developmentally appropriate for students at these grade-level = groupings? =
Borthwick and=20 Nolan (1996) note that content standards and complementary benchmarks = are the=20 "essential first step" in setting expectations for student learning but = contend=20 that these tools have limited usability in gauging student performance. = Although=20 content standards provide guidance for the design of instructional = programs and=20 checking the quality of instruction, "they do not tackle the crucial = question of=20 performance." Student performance standards fill this need.=20

Student Performance Standards. Student performance = standards=20 are "explicit definitions of what students must do to demonstrate = proficiency at=20 a specific level on the content standards," states the National Center = for=20 Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (1999).=20

Marzano and Kendall (1996) state that a performance standard = "describes a=20 specific use of knowledge and skills; it is not a description of = knowledge, but=20 a description of some application of it" (p. 13). They give the = following=20 example of a performance standard used in conjunction with a content = standard:=20

"A content standard in science might specify that students = should=20 understand the characteristics of ecosystems on the Earth's surface. = The=20 performance standard for that piece of declarative knowledge would = specify the=20 level of accuracy and the facts, concepts, and generalizations about=20 ecosystems on the Earth's surface that a student must understand to be = judged=20 as having obtained a suitable level of achievement. It also would put = that=20 knowledge in some type of performance environment by stating that the=20 information must be presented, for example, in the form of an essay, a = simulation, or an oral report with accompanying graphics." (pp.=20 13-14)

Borthwick and Nolan (1996) explain: "Performance standards make = content=20 standards operational. They transform inert statements of content into = active=20 expectations for performance. They take the content standards an = essential step=20 further by giving meaning to the idea of meeting the standard." = Borthwick and=20 Nolan also define three=20 components of performance standards: performance descriptions, = samples of=20 student work, and commentaries on student work.=20

Marzano and Kendall (1996) agree that "performance standards are a = critical=20 component of a comprehensive, standards-based approach to schooling," = and they=20 point out that "performance standards identify the environments in which = that=20 knowledge and skill should be demonstrated" (p. 14). They recommend that = schools=20 and districts begin by developing content standards and then define a=20 "complementary set of performance standards" or performance tasks (p. = 14). These=20 tasks will grow and evolve as students and teachers learn more about the = knowledge and skills needed to complete the task or attain the standard. =

The Wisconsin Rapids committee came to the = understanding that=20 the content standards alone--determining what students should = know--are=20 not enough to develop a curriculum framework. =

[498=20 K audio file]=20

"The secondary teachers' initial planning sessions = took=20 place prior to the publication of state standards. Many of their = first=20 curriculum drafts included statements of what students should = know or=20 should understand instead of looking at what students should be = able to=20 do or what students should be able to perform. When the NCREL = personnel=20 became involved with the development of our Science Framework, = they=20 helped the secondary teachers work through a process to look for = the big=20 ideas of science. These big ideas, or strands, helped teachers = to=20 conceptualize a plan, or a road map, for our entire district. = This road=20 map focuses not only on what students should know. It focuses on = what=20 students should be able to do."=20

In addition to specifying the necessary tasks inherent in content = standards,=20 performance standards may be used for other purposes, including educator = accountability and certification of individual achievement (McLaughlin = &=20 Shepard, 1995). These divergent purposes could call for entirely = different types=20 of performance standards. Performance standards for accountability and=20 certification "must be articulated in the form of rules for translating=20 assessment results into student-achievement categories," note McLaughlin = and=20 Shepard (1995, p. 36). They also suggest that performance standards = should first=20 be used to clarify students' application of the content standards and = later can=20 be used for educator accountability and certification purposes.=20

Guidelines for Teacher Knowledge and Understanding. = To=20 ensure that students achieve content standards--by attaining performance = levels=20 called for in the performance standards--framework designers may choose = to=20 include guidelines for teacher knowledge and understanding. These = guidelines can=20 provide suggested instructional techniques, recommended activities or = learning=20 experiences for students, specifications about teachers' content = knowledge, and=20 recommendations for instructional materials. Care should be taken, = however, that=20 these techniques or activities are viewed as suggestions less they limit = teachers' rights and responsibilities to make pedagogical decisions = based on the=20 minute-to-minute and day-to-day needs of their students.=20

Darling-Hammond (1994) adamantly states that efforts to ensure high = levels of=20 student performance should demand that teachers know as much about = students and=20 learning as they do about content. Teachers' requisite knowledge base = should=20 include a wide variety of instructional strategies and understanding of = when to=20 use those strategies, a thorough grounding in current learning research = and=20 application of that research in the classroom, and a substantive = assessment=20 repertoire to monitor what students know and are able to do. This = knowledge base=20 presupposes structures and processes in place in the schools and in the=20 teacher-preparation institutions that articulate high standards for = teachers.=20

Another factor that can be addressed in the guidelines for teacher = knowledge=20 is the use of technology in the classroom. As rapid advances in = technology=20 dramatically change the world, the schools must prepare students to = confidently=20 use and benefit from these changes. Guidelines can provide teachers at = all=20 levels with suggestions for when and how to integrate the use of = technology into=20 their teaching so students will benefit.=20

While developing the district curriculum framework, the curriculum = committee=20 should keep in mind its audiences and purposes. The completed framework=20 communicates to the larger public the goals, expectations, and standards = for=20 which the educational institution is willing to be held accountable. It = serves=20 as a guide for educators to use when planning the curriculum. It also = provides=20 guidance for teachers and administrators as they seek to increase = student=20 achievement and improve teacher practice. Finally, it serves as the = basis for=20 educational discourse and for further framework revision and = development. When=20 the framework is finalized, the curriculum committee can select a=20 curriculum-planning model to determine the specific curriculum.=20

Selecting a Curriculum-Planning Model=20

The second step of integrating standards into the curriculum is = selecting a=20 curriculum-planning model. This model provides the foundation for the=20 development of the specific curriculum. Bybee et al. (1990) describe how = the=20 specific details of the curriculum fit into the framework:=20

"A complete framework provides information needed to make=20 decisions about the content, the sequences of activities, the = selection of=20 instructional strategies and techniques that are likely to be = effective,=20 appropriate assessment practices, and other specifics of the = curriculum.... A=20 framework is like the broad sketches of an architect's plan. The = framework=20 gives an initial picture of the program and is based on certain=20 specifications. The architect's plan has to fulfill certain = requirements. At=20 the same time, the more specific details are left to the contractors = and the=20 carpenters. Everyone knows there will be modifications as the = framework is=20 developed and implemented, but there should be some fidelity to the = original=20 intentions, specifications, and design." (p. 86)

The quest for the attainment of high standards by all students in = conjunction=20 with current research on teaching and learning calls for a "customized = approach=20 (learning-focused) to education" rather than a "standardized approach = ... (a=20 sorting-focused system)," notes Reigeluth (1997, p. 204). From a=20 curriculum-development perspective, such an approach necessitates = knowing where=20 each learning experience fits in a given unit or field of endeavor, as = well as=20 how all experiences and units fit in the big picture of what students = should=20 know and be able to do. Units and lessons are developed by considering = all=20 components of the curriculum framework and determining how the = activities and=20 strategies will help students understand necessary concepts and gain new = skills=20 to successfully meet district learning goals.=20

In many cases, the curriculum-planning model may be determined by the = state=20 or the district or even by the adopted curriculum materials. As a = general rule,=20 however, the usability of a planning model depends on whether it = provides the=20 guidance and impetus to answer the questions that enable student = learning. Such=20 models should provide the context and content for instruction and, at = the same=20 time, allow the flexibility for change. Such flexibility is needed when=20 educators wish to apply current learning research and when community = members and=20 students are part of the curriculum-development process.=20

Thus, the new models for curriculum planning and development look = much=20 different from the lesson-plan formats and the scope-and-sequence = documents=20 traditionally used. The task is to find or design a model that informs, = drives,=20 and enables the attainment of high standards by all students in a = customized=20 fashion and to address developmental differences and differences in = experience,=20 prior knowledge, and interest that each student brings to the classroom. = As=20 Reigeluth (1997) points out:=20

"We need customization to replace standardization, in order = to=20 have an education system that is focused on learning (attaining high=20 standards) rather than on sorting. This does not mean that the basic = standards=20 for faster learners should be different from those for slower = learners;=20 rather, it means that we should not expect all students to meet = standards=20 within the same time frames. Further rationale for this conclusion is = provided=20 by differences in developmental rates for learners of the same age,=20 differences in opportunities to learn outside of school, differences = in prior=20 knowledge and skills, differences in interests, and many other = factors." (p.=20 204)

Researchers have found that most curriculum-planning models fall into = five categories=20 of curriculum design. The appropriate design depends upon the = learning goals=20 or standards to be met. After teachers choose their model, they = determine units=20 of study for the units and lessons that will be taught.=20

One way to foster the curriculum-development process is to use the = five=20 models adapted from templates developed for Science T.R.E.E. (Teachers = Reaching=20 Educational Excellence), an instructional design tool from the North = Central=20 Mathematics and Science Consortium. Science T.R.E.E. design-team members = (including teachers) developed the templates to be easily adapted to = other=20 content areas and grade levels as well as to address a broader context = of=20 curriculum design. Although these models are science based, they can = easily be=20 modified for any content area. The vision of these models is important = in=20 broadening the definition of curriculum planning and development, and = thereby=20 increasing teacher effectiveness and student learning. Each of these = models ties=20 together the planning of investigations (learning experiences), units of = study,=20 and the complete curriculum with the integration of standards.=20

The five Science T.R.E.E. models are:

  • Model=20 I (Apple Template). This model focuses on engaged learning, It = also brings=20 in the use of available technology to prepare students for the future. =

  • Model=20 II (Giant Sequoia Template). This model emphasizes = learner-centered=20 education. It presents questions that are posed to keep students = involved in=20 the planning and implementation of the curriculum.=20

  • Model=20 III (Maple Template). This model is based on research. It = emphasizes=20 building and sequencing activities, units, and curricula to explore = unifying=20 themes and concepts.=20

  • Model=20 IV (Pine Template). This model has an up-front focus on = assessment. Its=20 first step enables teachers to decide what students are to learn and = how=20 students will demonstrate what they have learned. Then attention turns = to how=20 to achieve the desired results.=20

  • Model=20 V (Oak Template). This model is the most comprehensive in guiding = teachers=20 through a step-by-step process of curriculum development. Guiding = questions=20 help teachers determine what they want to teach, how to provide the = best=20 learning opportunities for students, how to manage the learning = environment,=20 and how to determine what students have learned.

These five models, as well as many others currently used in schools = and=20 districts, incorporate current learning research and provide = opportunities for=20 teacher reflection. The reflection component allows teachers to record = and=20 analyze the educational strategies that worked and the changes that need = to be=20 made in the classroom.=20

When curriculum development is a dynamic process involving the entire = educational community, it is imperative that classroom teachers fully = understand=20 the latest teaching and learning research, the content standards and the = knowledge required to meet those standards, and the student-performance = levels=20 required to demonstrate that students have learned what they need to = have=20 learned. High-quality curriculum-planning models can help those teachers = develop=20 professionally as they plan their time with the students.=20

In Wisconsin Rapids, curriculum committee members = kept in=20 mind two educational ideologies. They talk about how their = philosophy=20 influenced the curriculum development as well as their exploration = of=20 different curriculum-planning models. =

[1.1 MB audio file]=20

"Science is an active process, and science is for = all=20 students. These are principles that permeate our science = curriculum. In=20 addition, a blend of two ideologies pervades our Wisconsin = Rapids Public=20 Schools science curriculum: constructivism and developmentalism. = The=20 constructivist view is that all students come to learning tasks = already=20 well supplied with their own sets of knowledge, conceptions, and = misconceptions. Developmentalism is a belief that rather than = fitting=20 the child to the curriculum, students are better served if the=20 curriculum is fitted to the child's stage of development. The=20 developmental approach to curriculum pays attention to the ways = children=20 grow and learn. By understanding children's abilities and = capabilities,=20 worthwhile educational activities for students can be planned. = Our=20 elementary curriculum is organized into developmental levels: = grades=20 K-2, 3-4, and 5-6. These levels match those found in NSTA's = Pathways to=20 the Science Standards. We appreciated the model entitled Science = for all=20 Students, which was provided by the Florida Department of = Education. It=20 offered specific examples of how science curriculum is put into=20 practice. In addition, NCREL's Tree Templates were being = developed about=20 the same time as our curriculum was being written. This gave = teachers a=20 variety of choices for planning lessons in their classroom. = During=20 professional development sessions, our kindergarten through 6th- = grade=20 staff had the opportunity to select the template model that = matched=20 their teaching style and lesson-format preference."=20

In many schools, the nucleus of curriculum planning is formed by = materials=20 review, piloting, adoption, and implementation. In some cases, those = adopted=20 materials define the school's curriculum framework. Although many of = these=20 schools, teachers, and students are showing positive results due to the = high=20 quality of the newer materials and the intense and professional nature = of their=20 implementation plans, the ultimate goal still is to develop a curriculum = based=20 on the standards set by their community for their students. Curriculum = planning,=20 curriculum review and implementation processes, and alignment of = materials with=20 the standards by necessity must form a cohesive whole that enables = teachers and=20 students to perform at their highest levels. This goal is linked with = the=20 process of building capacity.=20

Building Capacity at All Levels of the Educational = System=20

The third step in integrating standards into the curriculum is = promoting capacity=20 building at all levels of the educational system. Capacity = building=20 is any process that increases the capability of individuals to produce = or=20 perform; it enables all stakeholders to carry out their tasks to the = best of=20 their ability.=20

In the educational community, capacity building is not limited to = teachers=20 and administrators, nor does it relate only to increasing student = learning and=20 achievement. In the context of standards-based educational reform, = capacity=20 building is a multifaceted, systemic endeavor that involves the = educators and=20 the institution, the students and their parents, and the larger = community of=20 stakeholders. Research and practice demonstrate that changing the way = education=20 is done, as schools promote higher standards of performance and = practice,=20 requires new and different capacities for all stakeholders. Finding ways = to=20 build capacity for a variety of roles and for a broad-based group of = individuals=20 is the challenge.=20

Capacity building requires much more than traditional professional = and=20 personal development for administrators, teachers, and other school = staff.=20 Goertz, Floden, and O'Day (1996) note:=20

"If all students are to learn to new standards, not only = teachers,=20 but administrators, teacher educators, and other participants in the = education=20 system must change their roles and expectations. Educators, = researchers, and=20 policymakers are beginning to explore different ways to enhance the = ability of=20 the system and its teachers to improve student learning. But before = they can=20 design effective policies, policymakers must determine what capacities = are=20 needed and what mechanisms and strategies might foster their = development. Most=20 capacity-building strategies in education today are targeted on = individual=20 teachers and are designed to enhance their knowledge and improve their = instructional skills through the provision of workshops and university = courses. Yet, our data and that of other researchers suggest that the=20 traditional model of professional development reflects a limited = conception of=20 the dimensions of teacher capacity necessary to support and sustain=20 instruction reform and ignores the role of the school and other = communities of=20 practice in teacher learning and educational = improvement."

3D""=20The Wisconsin Rapids School District provided = capacity-building=20 experiences in a variety of formats. =

[762 K audio file]=20

"During the implementation phase, several=20 professional-development sessions were held. These large group = sessions=20 provided a forum where a common knowledge base and philosophical = base=20 could be discussed. Outside consultants--including Department of = Public=20 Instruction personnel and teacher leaders from within the = state--were=20 involved in these discussions. Small-group discussions within = each of=20 the elementary buildings followed the large group sessions. = These study=20 groups enabled individuals to question, reflect, and refine = their=20 understanding of the curriculum. Some individuals and teams of = teachers=20 designed classroom science lessons using our new curriculum and = NCREL's=20 Tree Templates. We felt that the Tree Templates would be one = vehicle to=20 share exemplary investigations [lessons]. Optional = staff-development=20 opportunities have also been structured in our district. = Hands-on=20 science classes and workshops were offered in the summer. Some = of these=20 classes had follow-up meetings that reinforced concepts learned = and gave=20 teachers additional time to reflect and to discuss curriculum = issues."=20

A plan for capacity building initially should focus on bringing = together=20 school administrators and staff in a professional=20 learning community. In such a community, all educators are united in = their=20 commitment to student learning. They share a vision, work and learn=20 collaboratively, visit and review other classrooms, and participate in = shared=20 decision-making (Hord, 1997b). Eventually, this group may expand to = include=20 parents and members of the community. The long-term goals of the = learning=20 community are to enable educators and students to continue learning and = growing,=20 to empower educators to participate in decision making, to create a = school=20 culture of accountability built on respect, and to optimize the = achievement of=20 all students. Continued capacity building is contingent on the ability = of=20 educators to implement, monitor, and evaluate the curriculum.=20

Implementing, Monitoring, Reflecting Upon, and Evaluating the = Curriculum=20

The final step of integrating standards into the curriculum consists = of=20 implementing the curriculum in the classroom and continued monitoring,=20 reflection, and evaluation to improve it. Teachers are responsible for=20 implementing the curriculum as it evolves and determining if it is = having the=20 desired effect on student learning. In their daily classroom activities, = teachers keep data to monitor student progress and evaluate student = performance.=20 They take care to use a variety of assessment tools that are performance = based=20 instead of relying on standardized tests. Along with the curriculum = committee,=20 teachers use ongoing reflection to determine the strengths and = weaknesses of the=20 curriculum and to make needed changes. Evaluation can include the entire = curriculum framework, the curriculum-planning model, and the teaching = strategies=20 used in the classroom. The ongoing goal is to improve the curriculum and = raise=20 student achievement.=20

Efforts to develop a curriculum framework that is built around = standards and=20 district learning goals, to develop quality curriculum based on that = framework,=20 and to empower stakeholders to carry out the activities to the best of = their=20 ability does not ensure that learning will take place. Attention also = has to be=20 given to the process of implementing the curriculum as it evolves and=20 determining if it is having the desired effect on student learning. = Changes to=20 the framework, curriculum, and strategies used should be made if the = desired=20 results are not being achieved. Only if students are meeting performance = standards is true education taking place.=20

To determine the quality of student learning, teachers and the = curriculum=20 committee can answer specific questions to determine the effectiveness = of the=20 curriculum. These questions could include:=20

  • What information and data are available to support the belief that = education did in fact happen?=20

  • Can specific learning be linked to specific actions, learning = experiences,=20 strategies, people, or environments?=20

  • Did any specific learning or learning experiences contribute in a = major=20 way to attainment of a particular standard? What performance = demonstrated that=20 attainment? How many students attained that level of performance?=20

  • How appropriate are the content standards, performance standards, = and=20 benchmarks for the students?=20

  • How appropriate are the learning experiences in generating the=20 performances called for in the standards? Which experiences need to be = eliminated? Which experiences need to be revised or expanded? What new = experiences need to be designed to help students attain a higher level = of=20 performance?=20

  • What embedded assessment tools provide reliable evidence that = education=20 has happened?=20

  • What curricular materials are the most valuable in designing = learning=20 experiences that enable education to happen?=20

  • How are district resources--including human resources, material = resources,=20 and fiscal resources--organized to facilitate the standards-based = reform=20 processes in place?

Such questions enable all stakeholders to reflect on and evaluate the = curriculum. If students are not meeting performance standards or if = other=20 desired results are not being achieved, teachers and the curriculum = committee=20 should determine what changes are needed.=20

If the curriculum-development process is to evolve continually, = opportunities=20 to reflect on and to question the effectiveness of the curriculum are = essential.=20 It is the responsibility of all stakeholders to participate in the = evaluation=20 process and determine whether students are attaining the standards set = for them.=20 Stakeholders should hold themselves accountable for doing their job and=20 accepting this responsibility. The bottom line is what happens between = teachers=20 and students, yet everyone monitors the finish line.=20

Developing a curriculum framework based on standards and district = learning=20 goals, designing a curriculum-planning model based on that framework, = empowering=20 stakeholders to carry out the activities to the best of their ability, = and=20 ensuring continued monitoring and evaluation as the curriculum is = implemented in=20 the classroom are four steps in the process of integrating standards = into the=20 curriculum. The importance of these steps becomes more apparent when = educators=20 consider the impact of current learning in helping students gain the = knowledge=20 and skills they will need later to function as productive adults.=20

Some scientists are now predicting that by the year 2015, the amount = of=20 available knowledge will be doubling every two months. This figure has=20 innumerable ramifications for curriculum-framework development that = serves=20 students who will be living and working in an unimaginable world of the = future.=20 Thus, it is imperative that curriculum development brings together a = varied and=20 knowledgeable group of individuals to guide the process and that the=20 standards-based curriculum is updated and improved on an ongoing basis. =

3D""=20=20 GOALS:=20

  • Teachers, administrators, parents, and community members are = involved in=20 determining what they want students to know and be able to do.=20

  • District, state, and national goals and standards are aligned, = coherent,=20 and understandable in a curriculum framework.=20

  • The curriculum framework includes not only content standards but=20 complementary performance standards, guidelines for teacher knowledge = and=20 understanding, capacity-building activities and processes, and = opportunities=20 for reflection and evaluation.=20

  • Teachers work together with the curriculum committee to develop = the=20 school's curriculum using an appropriate curriculum-planning model = within the=20 guidelines of the curriculum framework.=20

  • Capacity building for all stakeholders is valued. It is = thoughtfully and=20 comprehensively planned and carried out.=20

  • Monitoring and assessment of student achievement is accomplished = using=20 multiple assessment tools.

3D""=20=20 ACTION OPTIONS: The curriculum committee (comprising = school=20 board members, administrators, teachers, parents, grandparents, = students, and=20 community members representing all ethnic groups in the district) can = take the=20 following steps to integrate standards into the curriculum:=20

  • Develop a curriculum framework at the local = level.=20

    • Study state and national educational standards, district = standards, and=20 information=20 on developing and implementing standards.=20

    • Be aware of various principles=20 that reflect appropriate use of standards.=20

    • Review research on student=20 learning and teaching=20 strategies.=20

    • Learn about the characteristics=20 of successful schools.=20

    • Use the knowledge gained from the review of research to set = local=20 content standards, performance standards, benchmarks, and possibly=20 guidelines for teacher knowledge and understnding by adopting or = adapting=20 available standards, combining a number of sources, or writing new = local=20 standards and benchmarks.=20

    • Incorporate the standards into a curriculum framework that will = inform,=20 guide, and support curriculum development.=20

    • Determine the additional parts--such as capacity building and=20 evaluating--that need to be added to the framework to address = additional=20 audiences and purposes, such as informing community members, = parents, and=20 business partners of the standards and how they will become a part = of the=20 school curriculum.=20

  • Select or design a curriculum-planning model for = curriculum=20 development.=20

    • Choose a curriculum model incorporating the areas that the = learning=20 community has decided are necessary for integrating standards into = the=20 curriculum.=20

    • Encourage the participation of students and community members in = the=20 curriculum-development process.=20

    • Give substantial attention to monitoring student learning and = reflecting=20 on teacher practice.=20

    • Ensure that the model reflects the evolving nature of curriculum = development.=20

  • Promote capacity building at all levels of the educational = system.=20

    • Acknowledge the importance of building capacity for = education=20 reform.=20

    • Ensure that standards=20 provide opportunity for staff development.=20

    • Develop a plan for creating a professional learning community = comprising=20 administrators and school staff.=20

    • Expand the learning community to include parents and community = members.=20

    • Create a culture of accountability; ensure that all members of = the=20 learning community take ownership of the curriculum-development = process to=20 promote high student achievement.=20

  • Guide the monitoring of, reflection about, and evaluation = of the=20 curriculum as teachers implement it in the classroom.=20

    • Use an ongoing reflection process to involve all stakeholders in = improving the curriculum.=20

    • Use a variety of assessment tools to determine if students are = reaching=20 learning goals.=20

    • Provide time and opportunities for teachers to reflect on and = evaluate=20 the curriculum.=20

    • Convene meetings with teachers to discuss the overall = effectiveness of=20 the curriculum in improving student learning.=20

    • Determine the appropriateness of the content standards, = benchmarks, and=20 student performance standards for meeting learning goals.=20

    • Develop strategies for making changes to the curriculum.=20

    • Continue meeting regularly to review progress and allocation of=20 resources, plan the next steps, check for alignment and coherence, = and=20 implement changes to the curriculum.=20

3D""=20 IMPLEMENTATION PITFALLS: Addressing the state of = the current=20 standards-based reform efforts in education, Meier (1996) uses the = following=20 metaphor:=20

"A horse and buggy is not at fault for not being able to go = 60=20 miles an hour. Exhorting driver and horse to go faster or blaming them = for=20 having insufficiently high expectations is a futile exercise. What is = needed=20 is to invent the car. As a society we decided that everyone deserved = the best=20 . . . . But once we wanted everyone to have the 'best,' we had in = effect told=20 the horse and buggy to do the impossible." (p. 271)

Darling-Hammond (1990) states it another way: "American public = schools=20 designed for the 19th century are incapable of solving the problems that = will=20 face us in the 21st [century]" (p. 286). She adds that some people think = "schools can be made to improve if standards are set and incentives=20 established," but such reasoning is faulty because "[school people] work = within=20 a dysfunctional organizational structure that has made inadequate = investments in=20 the knowledge and tools they need to address students' needs" (p. 287).=20 Prevalent in this dysfunctional organizational structure are many of the = pitfalls for integrating content standards into the school curriculum: = tracking,=20 teacher shortages, lack of professional development, and time and = financial=20 concerns.=20

Tracking. The practice of tracking students is still = used=20 extensively in the United States. Proponents of tracking believe that = grouping=20 students by ability enables educators to better meet the needs of = students.=20 Opponents of tracking believe that this practice actually is harmful to = the=20 students placed in the non-college-bound classes because it typically = provides a=20 low-level curriculum taught by less-qualified teachers in a negative = classroom=20 environment. "These curricular differences also explain much of the = disparity=20 between the achievement of higher- and lower-income students and between = the=20 achievement of white and minority students," notes Darling-Hammond = (1990, p.=20 289). For standards-based reform to provide all students with the = opportunity to=20 work with a challenging curriculum, the long-established tracking system = in=20 America's school will need to be abolished.=20

Teacher Shortages. Abolishing tracking and working = to help=20 all students meet district, state, and national standards will require=20 well-trained, highly skilled, and knowledgeable teachers. Unfortunately, = shortages of qualified teachers are most prevalent in high-poverty areas = and in=20 the subjects of math, science, special education, bilingual education, = and=20 foreign languages (U.S. Department of Education, 1999). Also, about 22 = percent=20 of new public school teachers leave the profession in their first three = years=20 (National Center for Education Statistics, 1994).=20

Professional Development. Those teachers who are = remaining=20 in the classroom, now more than ever, need professional development in = the areas=20 of standards-based curriculum, student learning and motivation, and=20 specials-needs children. "Effective teaching, and especially teaching = for=20 higher-order understanding requires a range of teaching methods that = have been=20 found to be highly dependent on the extent and quality of training that = teachers=20 have received," notes Darling-Hammond (1990, p. 292).=20

Time and Financial Concerns. Further complicating = this=20 picture is that the resources of time and money are at a premium in = American=20 schools. Time and money are desperately needed to provide this ongoing=20 professional development coupled with continuous support, to encourage=20 high-quality people to remain in the teaching profession, and to = purchase the=20 curricular materials and the technology that support a standards-based=20 curriculum.=20

That these pitfalls are interconnected is no surprise. The true = reformation=20 of our nation's schools cannot afford to be likened to forcing the horse = and=20 buggy to go faster. A standards-based curriculum based on the belief = that all=20 children can learn and achieve at a high level requires a systemic = approach--in=20 effect, a totally new car. Integrating standards into the curriculum is = but one=20 part of this new machine called educational reform.

3D""=20 DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW: As with any trend = or=20 movement in the field of education, standard-based reform has its = critics. After=20 spending more than seven years studying standards documents and related=20 subject-area materials, Marzano and Kendall (1996) have documented a = wide=20 variety of criticisms=20 of the standards movement brought to the public's attention by noted = critics.=20

McLaughlin and Shepard (1995) question whether standards alone can = make a=20 difference in improving the quality of education:=20

"Serious questions have been raised about whether the = standards=20 movement is what is needed most to improve public education. = Excellence in=20 academic achievement requires more than setting goals and expecting = students=20 to meet them. What if reformers focused instead on the necessary = conditions of=20 a highly literate and well-educated nation? What conditions would = foster=20 high-level academic outcomes for most of our citizens? A respect = within the=20 general populace for intellect and its use? The guarantee of adequate=20 educational resources? The availability of opportunities to use and = benefit=20 from high-level education? If these conditions prevailed, it is less = likely=20 that we would have to worry about students meeting high standards." = (p. 12)=20

Berkson (1997) also questions whether national standards are needed. = He=20 claims that content standards are already in place for the top 25 = percent of=20 students and that those standards are enforced through the Scholastic = Aptitude=20 Test (SAT), the American College Test (ACT), and the Advanced Placement = exams=20 given by the Educational Testing Service of Princeton, New Jersey. For = the other=20 75 percent of students, he recommends testing for a national Basic = Skills=20 Certificate. He believes that passing such an exam will demonstrate = students'=20 mastery of basic academic skills to future employers and to institutions = of=20 higher education. In effect, he says, national and state content = standards are=20 not needed, and district standards are of nebulous value.=20

Others argue that the standards debate is about neither challenging = content=20 standards nor basic skill competencies. Lewis (1995) says that = "technology is=20 about to break up the education system as we know it" (p. 750). She = states that=20 "computers and other interactive resources now (or soon to be) available = pose a=20 serious challenge to educators because they make control over the scope = and=20 sequence of learning--the traditional role of the K-12 system--obsolete" = (p.=20 750).=20

Clinchy (1996) notes that elementary and secondary schools often have = difficulty integrating standards into the curriculum and restructuring=20 themselves to prepare students for the 21st century because teachers are = still=20 required to teach an "outmoded, essentially 19th-century, almost = entirely=20 academic curriculum" (p. 269). He adds that these demands seem = inappropriate=20 because "institutions of higher education are not being required to = 'reform' and=20 'restructure' themselves for the very same reasons" (p. 270). He = suggests that=20 if elementary and secondary schools have to prepare students for a = traditional=20 collegiate experience, K-12 reform efforts always will be thwarted.=20

Many classroom teachers worry that teacher and student accountability = for the=20 content dictated by district, state, and national standards will be = based on=20 standardized tests written to evaluate the teaching and learning of the=20 curriculum. McLaughlin and Shepard (1995) note:=20

"If national content standards are used narrowly as 'test=20 specifications' for national, state, or local accountability devices, = teachers=20 will then merely implement the test-defined curriculum rather than = inventing=20 instructional activities consistent with broad curriculum frameworks = but=20 responsive to their own students' learning" (p. 14).

In addition, McLaughlin and Shepard (1995) suggest that integrating = national=20 and state standards into a district's curriculum may usurp the local = control=20 that has been a hallmark of the U.S. public education system and, quite=20 possibly, will lead to a highly specified national curriculum. They note = that=20 much of the opposition to standards reform is based on fear of losing = the=20 "flavor of the community" and "of undermining professional and local=20 responsibility for student learning" (p. 13).=20

Ohanian (1996) believes that many educational-reform leaders are = unable to=20 recognize a high-quality curriculum:=20

"Essayist Will Cuppy once noted that penguins are dignified, = they=20 get their names in the newspaper, and only an expert can tell a live = penguin=20 from a stuffed one. Curriculum reform must be at the heart of any = substantive=20 change, but too many people who talk the talk of reform can't tell a = live=20 curriculum from a stuffed one" (p. 277).

Ohanian adds that setting high academic standards is good for = students, but=20 she worries that little is being said about what happens to the students = who are=20 not reading by third grade and who are not taking algebra or leading = discussion=20 groups in a foreign language by ninth grade. She believes that teachers = must=20 take children as they are and do the best job of educating them today: = "If I=20 teach them well today, this minute, tomorrow will take care of itself" = (p. 279).=20

Finally, there is controversy about the terminology being used in = this=20 educational reform debate. "Even staunch supporters of national = standards admit=20 there is considerable confusion about the idea of a standard," notes = Noddings=20 (1997). "Some see a standard as a flag of sorts--something to rally = around.=20 Others see it as a goal to be reached, and still others see it as a = description=20 of various proficiency levels. In this last sense, a standard is a norm = for=20 quality control" (p. 184). For all stakeholders to share a common = understanding=20 and a common vision, there must be national, state, and district = agreement on=20 terminology such as standards, benchmarks, and grade-level expectations, = and an=20 understanding of their implications for students and teachers.

3D""=20=20 ILLUSTRATIVE CASES:=20

  • Grand=20 Rapids Public Schools, Grand Rapids, Michigan=20

  • Wisconsin=20 Rapids School District, Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin

3D""=20=20 CONTACTS:=20

Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning
Standards at=20 McREL
2550 S. Parker Road, Suite 500
Aurora, CO 80014
(303) = 337-0990;=20 fax (303) 337-3005
Contact: Janie Pollock
E-mail: info@mcrel.org
WWW: www.mcrel.org/standards/

=

National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student = Testing=20 (CRESST)
University of California at Los Angeles
Graduate School = of=20 Education and Information Studies
301 GSE&IS, Mailbox = 951522
300=20 Charles E. Young Drive North
Los Angeles, CA 90095-1522
(310) = 206-1532;=20 fax (310) 825-3883
Contact: Joan Herman, Associate = Director
E-mail: Joan@cse.ucla.edu
WWW: http://cresst96.cse.ucla.edu/<= /P>

National Center on Education and the Economy
700 11th St. N.W., = Suite=20 750
Washington, DC 20001
(202) 783-3668; fax (202) = 783-3672
Contact:=20 Marc Tucker, President
E-mail: info@ncee.org
WWW: http://www.ncee.org/

Donna Weber, Principal
Grove Elementary School
471 Grove=20 Ave.
Wisconsin Rapids, WI 54494
(715) 422-6136; fax (715) = 422-6325

3D""=20 References=20

This Critical Issue was written by Cyntha Pattison and Nancy Berkas, = program=20 associates with the North Central Mathematics and Science Consortium at = North=20 Central Regional Educational Laboratory.=20

Date posted: 2000

3D"Web

info@ncrel.org=20

Copyright =C2=A9 North Central Regional = Educational=20 Laboratory. All rights reserved.
Disclaimer and copyright=20 information.

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